Management Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 6

Management Accounting - Essay Example This platform helps the organizations to take their long term business decisions. It has been observed that there is a long term debate between the global fraternities related with the functionality of accounting. Many experts have described accounting as the communicating tool for the organizations to showcase their business reality. On the other hand many people have stated that accounting itself constructs reality. This debate is a burning issue for the organizations across the world. Accounting is nothing but an information science used for the purpose of classifying financial data. Here in this essay the title statement will be critically analyzed on the basis of various favorable and unfavorable arguments. The essay will also include the framework of Burchell et al into this essay. The essay will follow a step by step approach which will analyze the topic in detailed fashion. The essay will follow a suitable structure. With the help of this essay an attempt will be made to end the debate related with the title topic. Accounting is a process through which organizational reality can be communicated. Organization does accounting for the purpose of communicating realities towards the all stakeholders related with the organizations. Every organization has internal and external stakeholders. It is important for internal and external stakeholders to know the organization reality in detailed fashion. To get the detailed information there is no substitute of accounting. It indicates that accounting does communicate reality to the stakeholders. Financial communication is the most important factor on the basis of which investment related decisions are being made. Investors invest their moneys on the basis of proper information. That information is being communicated with the help of accounting. According to the framework of Burchell, if uncertainties of

Applied Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Applied Economics - Essay Example Concerning the four countries in question it is evident that the rate of growth of the Gross domestic product varies from one country to another (The world bank, 2014). Based on the comparison among the four countries it is apparent that a high volume of Money at LCU corresponds with a low gross domestic product and a low volume of money at LCU corresponds with a high gross domestic product. Money at LCU is one of the significant economic indicators since it refers to the money that is in circulation (Econstats, 2014). In this case, financial transaction tax will have a direct impact on the money at LCU. In this case, financial transaction tax will lead to a decrease for money at LCU. Based on the relationship between money at LCU and GDP a reduction in the money at LCU will raise the rate of GDP for a given country. Consequently, this will have a reduction in money at LCU will lead to reduction in inflation since it will reduce the spending habits of residents in a country. On the o ther hand, an increased local currency unit volume will increase money supply, which may lead to inflation (Eisenstein, C. 2011, 295). In conclusion, an analysis of the four data variables Inflation, money at its local currency unit (LCU), and revenue collected form tax and the gross domestic product outlines that financial transaction tax can have an impact on the economy of a country. Because financial transaction tax can regulate the money supply of a country, it can have an effect on the economic activities of a country. As a result, financial transaction tax can be used to stabilize economic conditions of a

Art Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Art Analysis - Essay Example His interest was focused on capturing the body movements so that he considered himself and preferred to be known more of a realist than an impressionist. Seurat on the other hand experimented on a new form of painting which was called pointillism because he used dots of colors to create a visual effect where primary colors placed near each other form the desired secondary colors. This experiment was inspired by his interest on color theories and the study of primary and secondary colors so that his style hugely contrasted the common manner of mixing colors on a palette. With the different styles of the two artists, obviously, their works have all been different although their thoughts placed into canvass both reflect features of impressionism. In Seurat’s A Sunday Afternoon, he tried to capture a photographic image of his subjects where the movements of the people are meticulously considered, interpreting even their facial expressions. As mentioned earlier, he used the concept of optical illusion where the viewers’ eyes seem to ‘mix’ the colors to form his desired color combinations with the use of dots of primary colors. Therefore, there are no traces of brush strokes in his work. Lines and curves have all been dependent on his skill and patience in making the painting. Looking more intently at the painting, one could just imagine the time spent in creating it, the care and painstaking effort exerted on the work. Seurat used the bright colors yellow and red as well as the cool colors green and blue, creating a lively sce ne at the island. He also used other colors for other objects and subjects in the painting, making use of a wide variety of colors. In contrast to Seurat, Degas formed his Ballet Rehearsal at the Set through brush strokes specially using thin lines to express the forms of his subjects. He used a mixture of long and short thin lines to define his thoughts placed into canvass, making every part of the painting detailed. One that could be

Journal 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Journal 1 - Essay Example During the reconstruction, factors such as social, cultural, political and economic emerged as the root problems that made Haiti experience hard times in handling this process on its own (Ulysses 38). Cultural illiteracy, witchcraft, Haitian Vodou, political instability like the 1991 military coup that ousted Jean- Bertrand Aristide and the effect of imperialism are some of the issues Ulysses highlights in his article (Ulysses, 40). Former American President Bill Clinton stated that the issue of money to reconstruct Haiti was not the fundamental problem, but the Haitians themselves. The earthquake unearthed Haiti’s history that is darkened by colonialism, racism, segregation, witchcraft, cultural illiteracy and political instability. It made Haiti look like, â€Å"a backward and uncivilized black country hidden in the west† (Ulysses 41). In conclusion, Haiti’s problems and internal threats can be summarized into social, cultural, political, and economic factors, which have long been embedded in their history since their independence. The 2010 earthquake justified that these factors need to be adequately addressed in order to solve Haiti’s

Leadership and Management in Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Leadership and Management in Nursing - Essay Example Our nursing values are based on passion, respect, integrity, and on delivering the best healthcare services. Based on the above mission, vision, and values of our organization and of the nursing department, this paper shall now analyse such elements and discuss the extent to which these values are reflected in the nursing management and leadership of the hospital. The vision of the organization is to add years of healthy life to the people of Singapore. This vision is common to other health care organizations. This vision statement was able to capture the overall purpose of the organization. Vision statements of healthcare organizations present hopes for the future (Williamson, 1997). They are goals for the long-term and are based on general goals which the organization seeks to gradually obtain through the implementation of more specific objectives. This vision presents what the organization seeks to become as it now seeks to fulfil its mission. In the case of the hospital, it presents its larger goal and realization through its vision of seeking a longer life for the people of Singapore. It is also an inspirational and challenging statement. It presents a lofty and seemingly unobtainable goal, and it cannot stand alone without a more specific set of goals. The mission statements for the organization are closely linked to the organizationâ⠂¬â„¢s vision. The mission statement for the organization is more specific in attaining and reaching the organization’s end goal. It specifies its nature as an organization – that of building tradition; reaching out to the community; doing best to serve, care and heal; and of aiming for excellence in cost effective healthcare education and research. Mission statements for the organization are laid out in order to specify the products and services offered by the organization (Swayne, Ginter, & Duncan, 2006). Some hospitals and

Pre-Industrial European Labour Market Essay Example for Free

Pre-Industrial European Labour Market Essay In this critical review I will compare the two texts by Peter Earle and Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk. The articles are about woman’s work in the 17th and early 18th century respectively about women’s work in the Dutch textile industry and female labour marked in London. The article by Earle (in 1989) is released before Meerkerk’s article (2006) and there are in Meerkerk analysis some pointing to Earle’s article. I will start with a short presentation of each of the two articles, how and from what time data is collected, some of the findings and conclusion. And then what contribution their papers have made to the historical debate about women’s role in the pre-industrial labour market. Both Earle and Meerkerk refer to Alice Clarks pioneer study from 1919 about women’s work in production in pre-industrial time[1] [2]. Earle is more critical to her work than Meerkerk. Peter Earle is the first person after Alice Clark to look deep and critically into how women had it in the labour market in the 17th and 18th century. In his article Earle is saying â€Å"Indeed, it would be fair to say that we know virtually nothing about the female labour force in early modern London except in the most unstructured and superficial way[3]. An important note Earle makes in his introduction is that the arguments that Alice Clark put forward has more or less just became accepted and Peter Earle is the first one to test Alice Clark’s analyze[4]. A main thing Meerkerk and Earle are concentrating on is Clark statement that there where a ‘golden age’ for women in the 17th and 18th century. What becomes clear in Meerkeerk article is that she is influenced by development in economic theory and social theory as well. The way Meerkeerk and Earle do their analyze is different. A major reason for that is that Meerkeerk is a social scientist while Earle is a ‘traditional empiricist historian’. What is easy to see is that Earle look at numbers much more than Meerkerk do, and while Meerkerk also look at numbers, she uses market theories as well such as the split market theory to analyze the findings. Katrina Honeyman and Jordan Goodman used this when they where looking at European women’s work between1500 – 1900[5]. Peter Earle is more or less guided by his sources. He goes thru his sources and construct figures [6] from his sources. He also takes other sources from other historians such as Wrigley and Schofield [7]. And this is what he is basing his conclusion on. Meerkerk on the other hand developed a frame work, she had an idea before she starting on the research. The idea is that of how to analyze her data. Based upon works from many social scientists and historians and their findings, she found that †we must therefore derive a new theoretical framework to explain the working of gender in the pre-industrial labour marked† [8]. On this background she analysed the data. Her work became a supplement to understand the segmentation of the labour market. Meerkerk wanted to know who got the core jobs, who got the peripheral jobs and why men tends to earn more than women even if they are doing the same work. Core jobs are higher paid and productivity while peripheral jobs is lower paid and lower productivity. Peter Earle has data from witnesses and defendants in the time period of approximately 1660 – 1725. Earle have an impressive material from whole London divided by districts, occupations, full-time and part-time, women and men and their age. He also has data from which class the citizens are from, if they are upper class or lower class (low wealth to high wealthy), and also reading skills and illiterate[9]. Earle is self-stating that poor people are under represented because they weren’t literate enough to be called as witnesses[10] Meerkerk’s material not less impressive than Earle’s, is from last quarter of the sixteenth century, first half of seventeenth century and 1810. Other than showing women in the textile industry in Holland, she are showing the percentage of married women who are in work, men and women in different industries, different jobs, heads of family per industrial sector and heads of family in textile industry. She also looks at women and men’s income. Meerkerk also has an analyse of guilds in the textile industry[11]. What is worth mentioning is that Tilburg and Leiden who are the main places in Holland she is looking at was wealthy places economically mainly because of the textile industry. Conclusion: Even though they goes with their work in a different way, they both come up with similar conclusions. None of them believes it was a ‘golden-age’ for women. Meerkerk said women where restricted to peripheral and low paid jobs but it was changeable, depending upon industry and it as is peak when women occasionally gets better paid jobs, but as soon the industry starts to decline women where the first to loose their job. The fine jobs women’s ones had, where then given to men. It’s easy to see there where gender discrimination. As mentioned, Earle has a kind of similar conclusion; He means that women where expected to work at that time to support their family. Women got low-paid and low skilled jobs while men got the higher paid jobs (core jobs). Meerkerk and Earle’s works compliments each other as to real knowledge about women’s situation on the labour marked in pre-industrial times. What Meerkerk’s work gives us more than Clark is supplement to the theories about segmented labour marked and the labour marked segregated by gender, and she are valuable to understand the labour marked in preindustrial time and today’s labour marked as well. Bibliography: Earle, Peter: The female labour market in London in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century, 1989 Economic History Review, 2nd ser., XLII, 3(1989), pp. 328-353 Meerkerk, Elise Van Nederveen; Segmentation in the Pre-Industrial Labour Market: Women’s Work in the Dutch Textile Industry, 1581 – 1810 page 189 216, 2006 Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis

Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence began in the 1960s, the first attempts were game playing (checkers), theory proving a few simple theories and general problem solving. General problem solving was much more difficult than originally anticipated. Researchers were unable to tackle problems routinely handled by human experts. Artificial Intelligence can be defined in many ways as it depends from which point of view you look at it from. From the intelligence point of view artificial intelligence is to make machines intelligent thus making them act as we people would act. However artificial intelligence from a research perspective is how to make machines do things people are currently doing better in other words making machines do what we humans can do. Now from a business point of view artificial intelligence is a combination of powerful tools, and methods for using those tools to solve business problems. As for the programming point of view artificial intelligence is the study of symbolic programming, search and problem solving. Expert Systems: Expert systems are defined on bases functional and structural. Expert systems from a functional perspective are defined based on what the system does rather than how it does it. A computer program that behaves like a human expert in some useful ways. (Winston Prendergast, 1984) Nevertheless we can define expert systems on the bases of their structure in many ways depending on which angle we look at it from Problem area â€Å"Solve problems efficiently and effectively in a narrow problem area. (Waterman, 1986) typically, pertains to problems that can be symbolically represented (Liebowitz, 1988) Problem difficulty apply expert knowledge to difficult real world problems (Waterman, 1986) solve problems that are difficult enough to require significant human expertise for their solution (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) â€Å"Address problems normally thought to require human specialists for their solution (Michaelsen et al, 1985). Performance requirement the ability to perform at the level of an expert (Liebowitz, 1988) â€Å"Programs that mimic the advice-giving capabilities of human experts. (Brule, 1986, p.6) â€Å"Matches a competent level of human expertise in a particular field. (Bishop, 1986, p.38) â€Å"Can offer intelligent advice or make an intelligent decision about a processing function. (British Computer Societys Specialist Group in Forsyth, 1984, pp.9-10) â€Å"Allows a user to access this expertise in a way similar to that in which he might consult a human expert, with a similar result. (Edwards and Connell, 1989, p.3) Explain reasoning â€Å"The capability of the system, on demand, to justify its own line of reasoning in a manner directly intelligible to the enquirer. (British Computer Societys Specialist Group in Forsyth, 1984, p.9-10) incorporation of explanation processes (Liebowitz, 1988) Expert Systems from a structural perspective are defined on the bases of how the system functions. â€Å"Using the programming techniques of artificial intelligence, especially those techniques developed for problem solving (Dictionary of Computing, 1986) However we can define expert systems on the bases of their structure in many ways depending on which angle we look at it from Use AI techniques using the programming techniques of artificial intelligence, especially those techniques developed for problem solving (Dictionary of Computing, 1986) Knowledge component the embodiment within a computer of a knowledge-based component, from an expert skill (British Computer Societys Specialist Group in Forsyth, 1984) a computer based system in which representations of expertise are stored (Edwards and Connell, 1989) The knowledge of an expert system consists of facts and heuristics. The facts constitute a body of information that is widely shared, publicly available, and generally agreed upon by experts in the field. (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) Expert systems are sophisticated computer programs that manipulate knowledge to solve problems (Waterman, 1986) Separate knowledge and control â€Å"Make domain knowledge explicit and separate from the rest of the system (Waterman, 1986). Use inference procedures an intelligent computer program that uses knowledge and inference procedures (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) The style adopted to attain these characteristics is a rule-based programming style. (British Computer Societys Specialist Group in Forsyth, 1984) Exhibit intelligent behavior by skillful application of heuristics. (Waterman, 1986). The heuristics are mostly private, little rules of good judgment (rules of plausible reasoning, rules of good guessing) that characterize expert-level decision making in the field. (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) incorporation of ways of handling uncertainty(Liebowitz, 1988) Model human expert â€Å"Can be thought of as a model of the expertise of the best practitioners of the field. (Edward Feigenbaum in Harmon King, 1985) representation of domain-specific knowledge in the manner in which the expert thinks (Liebowitz, 1988) â€Å"Involving the use of appropriate information acquired previously from human experts. (Dictionary of Computing, 1986) Components of an Expert System An expert system consists of 4 main components which are listed below: Knowledge base a representation of the expertise and is usually inputted in IF THEN rules, and are usually put into a database for easy access by the system. Working storage Data which is specific to a problem being solved by the expert system. Inference engine the code at the core of the system which derives recommendations from the knowledge base and problem-specific data in working storage. User interface the code that controls the dialog between the user and the system. People and they consist of: Domain experts the individual or individuals who currently are experts in solving the problems the system is intended to solve. Knowledge engineers the individuals who encode the experts knowledge in a declarative form that can be used by the expert system. Users the individuals who will be consulting with the system to get advice which would have been provided by the expert. Furthermore there are some other optional components that might be added to the system as sub systems and which try to make the expert system more efficient thus making it more powerful and they are. Explanation sub system is used to explain the logic or reason of recommending a solution. Justifier is another name of explanation sub system. Justifier also explains why a solution is recommended or not recommended. Knowledge refining sub system is used to refine the knowledge in the knowledgebase after working every time over a problem. It works exactly like human beings who analyze their actions and learn from their mistakes to perform better in the future. Programming Languages Used to Develop Expert Systems Here are some of the programming languages used to develop expert systems. 1. LISP, developed in the 1950s, is the early programming language strongly associated with AI. LISP is a functional programming language with procedural extensions. LISP (LISt Processor) was specifically designed for processing heterogeneous lists which is a list of symbols. Features of LISP that made it attractive to AI researchers included Run- time type checking. Higher order functions (functions that have other functions as parameters). Automatic memory management (garbage collection) and an interactive environment. 2. The second language strongly associated with AI is PROLOG. PROLOG was developed in the 1970s. PROLOG is based on first order logic. PROLOG is declarative in nature and has facilities for explicitly limiting the search space. 3. Object-oriented languages are a class of languages more recently used for AI programming. Important features of object-oriented languages include: concepts of objects and messages objects bundle data and methods for manipulating the data sender specifies what is to be done receiver decides how to do it inheritance (object hierarchy where objects inherit the attributes of the more general class of objects) Examples of object-oriented languages are Smalltalk, Objective C, C++. Object oriented extensions to LISP (CLOS Common LISP Object System) and PROLOG (LO Logic Objects) are also used. The Difference between these programming languages and procedural programming languages. According to an article in the Information and Software Technology journal by Alexander Chatzigeorgiou of the Department of Applied Informatics, at the University of Macedonia, the object-oriented approach is known to introduce a significant performance penalty compared to classical procedural programming. For instance, profiling results for embedded applications indicate that C++ programs, apart from being slower than their corresponding C versions, consume significantly more energy (mainly due to the increased instruction count, larger code size and increased number of accesses to the data memory for the object-oriented versions). Example of an Expert System One of the most recognized expert systems used today by the general public is the online doctor due to the fact that many people use it daily. In brief this expert system is used to diagnose people by asking them what the problem is and then suggesting the actions that they should take which sounds very similar to an expert system where the illness is the problem the recommended actions are the solutions. In this example the website that was studied is www.yourdiagnosis.com In this expert system there are main components of the expert system and they are: The people The people are separated into three categories and they are: The domain experts who are actually the doctors who provide the data for the system. The knowledge engineers are the engineers who enter this system in a rule based input for example giving multiple choice questions to diagnose a cold. Do you feel cold.[ ] Do you feel hot? [ ]. Do you feel normal? [ ] System engineer who is the person in charge assembling and managing the system. The user who is the person asking for the diagnoses. The user interface The user interface is the website used by the user to find the diagnoses. Example: The inherence engine The inherence engine which in this case is made by the engineer using a web based programming language like ASP or PHP in the website from the last example we see that the programming language used is ASP and we can see that from the address bar. http://www.yourdiagnosis.com/yourdiagnosis/Yourdiagnosis.ASP?WCI=WorldMapHTMWCE=ClickWCU The knowledge base The knowledge base in this case is where all the rules that the knowledge engineer inputted them in this case the engineer used Microsoft SQL SERVER 2008. The knowledge in this case is the medical knowledge given by the doctors. The working storage The working storage in this case is a storage area on the server where each users data is stored in a relational database The benefits of using artificial intelligence The main benefits of using artificial intelligence are: Provide answers for decisions, processes and tasks that are repetitive Hold huge amounts of information Minimize employee training costs Centralize the decision making process Make things more efficient by reducing the time needed to solve problems Combine various human expertises. Reduce the number of errors caused by humans. Provide strategic and comparative advantages that may create problems for competitors Look over transactions that human experts may not think of Even though the benefits of artificial intelligence is more than the above we find that the main advantage to using artificial intelligence is to maximize the efficiency of a business thus giving the business the edge it needs to over throw its competitors. Why Artificial intelligence is hard to include in information systems The difficulties in including artificial intelligence in information systems are due to many facts one of which is the expense. Furthermore there are multiple factors why its so difficult to include artificial intelligence in information systems from which is the human acceptance to Artificial intelligence especially in the older groups another factor is that domain experts will be threatened by the fact that they are giving their expertise to a company and the fear of being redundant. From the technical point of view the implementation of artificial intelligence is quite hard due to the if rule conversion of the expertise. And the integration with old systems will require an effort especially for established companies with legacy hardware and software. Which brings us to the expense part of the problem? There is no doubt that artificial intelligence is an expensive approach as it is time consuming as it requires a lot of time and human resources. Furthermore developing artificial intelligence relies heavily on having the correct expert information and having something wrong in the knowledge base might cause damages which will lead to costly error and problems. Reference Anonymous. Dictionary of Computing, 1986, New York: Oxford University Press. Bishop, Peter. Fifth Generation Computers Concepts, Implementations Uses, 1986, Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood Ltd. Brule, James F. Artificial Intelligence: Theory, Logic and Application, 1986, Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books. Edwards, Alex and Connell, N.A.D. Expert Systems in Accounting, 1989, Herfordshire, UK: Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd. Forsyth, Richard, Expert Systems: Principles and Case Studies, 1984, London: Chapman and Hall Computing. Harmon, Paul and King, David. Expert Systems: Artificial Intelligence in Business. 1985, New York: Wiley. Liebowitz, Jay, Introduction to Expert Systems, 1988, Santa Cruz, CA: Mitchell Publishing, Inc. Michaelsen, Robert H.; Michie, Donald and Boulanger, Albert. The Technology of Expert Systems Byte; April 1985 Rich, Elaine and Knight, Kevin. Artificial Intelligence Second Edition. 1991, New York: McGraw-Hill. Waterman, Donald A. A Guide to Expert Systems, 1986, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Winston, Patrick H. and Prendergast, Karen A. (Editors). The AI Business: Commercial Use of Artificial Intelligence, 1984, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Ruth A. Palmquist, Asst. Professor, AI and Expert Systems, 1996, http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/ai96.htm Dan E. OLeary, University of Southern California, 1994, http://accounting.rutgers.edu/raw/aies/www.bus.orst.edu/faculty/brownc/es_tutor/bus_ai.htm Robert S. Engelmore, May 1993; WTEC Hyper-Librarian, http://www.wtec.org/loyola/kb/c1_s1.htm Carol E. Brown, Oregon State University, Dan E. OLeary, University of Southern California, 1995, http://accounting.rutgers.edu/raw/aies/www.bus.orst.edu/faculty/brownc/es_tutor/es_tutor.htm#1-AI